Snow Hydrology

Learning Objectives

  • Understand the physical properties and metamorphism of snowpacks.
  • Define and calculate Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) based on snow depth and density.
  • Learn the methods used to physically measure snowpacks in the field.
  • Analyze snowmelt using the Energy Balance Method and the Degree-Day Method.

Snow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle in many parts of the world, acting as a natural reservoir that stores winter precipitation and releases it as snowmelt during the spring and summer. Understanding snow accumulation and melt is crucial for water resources management and flood forecasting.

Snowpack Characteristics

The physical properties of a snowpack change constantly over time due to weather, settling, and windβ€”a process called metamorphism.

Albedo

The reflectivity of the snow surface. Fresh snow has a very high albedo (0.8 to 0.9), reflecting most incoming solar radiation. As snow ages, becomes dirty, or begins to melt, its albedo drops significantly (0.4 to 0.6), causing it to absorb more heat and melt faster.

Thermal Conductivity

Snow is a highly porous medium filled with air, making it an excellent insulator (low thermal conductivity). A deep snowpack protects the underlying soil from freezing deeply, allowing infiltration to continue during early snowmelt.

Ripening

A snowpack becomes "ripe" when it is completely isothermal at 0∘C0^\circ\text{C} and its pore spaces are saturated with liquid water. Any further addition of heat directly results in snowmelt runoff.

Measurement of Snow

Measurement Methods

1. Snow Stakes: Graduated rods installed vertically in the ground to measure simple snow depth. 2. Snow Tubes (Core Samplers): Hollow tubes (e.g., Mount Rose sampler) driven into the snowpack to extract a core. The core is weighed to determine density and calculate SWE. 3. Snow Pillows: Large, antifreeze-filled bladders placed on the ground. As snow accumulates, the increased weight creates pressure changes in the bladder, providing a continuous telemetry reading of SWE without manual sampling.

Snow Water Equivalent (SWE)

The depth of snow is not a reliable indicator of how much water it contains because snow density varies significantly. Freshly fallen snow is "fluffy" and has low density, whereas older, compacted snow is much denser.

Snow Water Equivalent (SWE)

The theoretical depth of water that would result if the entire snowpack melted instantaneously. It is the product of the snow depth and the specific gravity (or bulk density) of the snow.

Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) Equation

Calculates the theoretical depth of liquid water contained in a snowpack.

SWE=ds×ρsρwSWE = d_s \times \frac{\rho_s}{\rho_w}

Variables

SymbolDescriptionUnit
SWESWESnow Water Equivalent (e.g., mm or inches)-
dsd_sDepth of the snowpack (e.g., mm or inches)-
ρs\rho_sDensity of the snow-
ρw\rho_wDensity of liquid water (1000 kg/m31000 \text{ kg/m}^3)-

Specific Gravity of Snow

A common rule of thumb for fresh snow is the '10-to-1 ratio', meaning 10 inches of fresh snow melts down to 1 inch of water (a specific gravity of 0.10). However, spring snowpacks can have a specific gravity of 0.30 to 0.50 as they compact and ripen.

Snowmelt Modeling

Snowmelt is driven by the energy balance at the snow surface. The most accurate way to model snowmelt is using a full energy budget approach.

Energy Balance Method

A more physically rigorous approach than the Degree-Day method. It accounts for all energy fluxes into and out of the snowpack to compute the energy available for melting.

Energy Budget Equation for Snowmelt

The total energy available for snowmelt (QmQ_m or Ξ”Q\Delta Q) is the sum of Net Shortwave Radiation, Net Longwave Radiation, Sensible Heat transfer from the air, Latent Heat from condensation/sublimation, Ground Heat Flux, and advected heat from rain. This approach is highly accurate but requires extensive meteorological data.

Energy Balance Equation

Accounts for all energy fluxes into and out of the snowpack to compute the energy available for melting.

Qm=Qsn+Qln+Qh+Qe+Qg+Qpβˆ’Ξ”UQ_m = Q_{sn} + Q_{ln} + Q_h + Q_e + Q_g + Q_p - \Delta U

Variables

SymbolDescriptionUnit
QmQ_mNet energy available for snowmelt-
QsnQ_{sn}Net shortwave solar radiation-
QlnQ_{ln}Net longwave radiation-
QhQ_hSensible heat flux (convection)-
QeQ_eLatent heat flux (condensation/evaporation)-
QgQ_gGround heat flux (conduction from soil)-
QpQ_pHeat content of precipitation (rain on snow)-
Ξ”U\Delta UChange in internal energy of the snowpack (ripening)-

Because the extensive data required for the Energy Balance Method is often unavailable, a simpler empirical method is widely used in practice.

Degree-Day Method (Temperature-Index Model)

The Degree-Day method assumes that snowmelt is proportional to the difference between the mean daily air temperature and a base temperature (usually 0∘C0^\circ\text{C}). It is the most common method used in operational flood forecasting models.

Degree-Day Snowmelt Equation

Estimates daily snowmelt proportional to the difference between mean daily air temperature and a base temperature.

M=CM(Taβˆ’Tb)M = C_M (T_a - T_b)

Variables

SymbolDescriptionUnit
MMDaily snowmelt depth (e.g., mm/day)-
CMC_MDegree-day melt coefficient (e.g., mm/∘Cβ‹…day\text{mm}/^\circ\text{C}\cdot\text{day})-
TaT_aMean daily air temperature (∘C^\circ\text{C})-
TbT_bBase temperature at which snow begins to melt (typically 0∘C0^\circ\text{C})-

Degree-Day Coefficient Variations

The degree-day coefficient (CMC_M) varies based on the season, forest cover, slope aspect, and snowpack ripeness. It is typically higher in late spring when the snowpack is "ripe" (isothermal at 0∘C0^\circ\text{C} and saturated with water).

Interactive Simulation

Explore how temperature, albedo, and solar radiation affect the rate of snowmelt over time using the simulation below.

Degree-Day Snowmelt Simulation

SWE=ds×ρsρwSWE = d_s \times \frac{\rho_s}{\rho_w}
M=15.0 cm/dayM = 15.0 \text{ cm/day}
Key Takeaways
  • Albedo (reflectivity) decreases as snow ages, accelerating the melt process by absorbing more solar radiation.
  • Snow Pillows and Snow Tubes are used to directly measure the mass/density of the snowpack.
  • Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) is the critical metric for snow hydrology, representing the actual depth of liquid water stored in the snowpack.
  • SWE is calculated by multiplying the physical snow depth by the ratio of snow density to water density.
  • The Energy Balance Method provides the most accurate physical model of snowmelt but demands significant meteorological data inputs (radiation, sensible/latent heat fluxes).
  • The Degree-Day Method is a practical and widely used empirical approach to estimate daily snowmelt based on mean daily air temperatures above a freezing baseline.
  • Snowmelt runoff can significantly contribute to spring flooding, especially when warm weather causes rapid melting of a deep, dense (ripe) snowpack.
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