Unlike ground anchors, soil nails are considered passive inclusions. They do not carry significant load upon installation.

• Mechanism: Closely spaced, relatively short steel bars (nails) are grouted into pre-drilled holes slightly inclined downward ($10^\circ$ to $20^\circ$) from the excavated face. As the excavation deepens, the soil mass naturally attempts to deform (bulge) outward and downward. This microscopic deformation of the soil mobilizes shear stresses along the grout-ground interface, transferring tension into the steel nails. The nails "tie" the unstable active wedge to the stable resistant zone behind it.
• The Facing: A thin, reinforced shotcrete facing (typically $100\text{ mm}$ to $150\text{ mm}$ thick) is applied over the excavated face, structurally connecting the nail heads. The facing serves primarily to prevent local sloughing of the soil between the nails and to protect the slope from erosion, rather than acting as a massive structural retaining wall.
• Suitability: Soil nailing requires the ground to have sufficient inherent "stand-up time" (cohesion) to remain stable temporarily (often 1-2 days) during a $1\text{m}$ to $2\text{m}$ excavation lift before the nail and shotcrete can be installed. It is excellent for stiff clays, dense sands with apparent cohesion, and weathered rock, but generally unsuitable for clean, dry sands or very soft clays below the water table.

Ground anchors are active elements. They are intentionally stressed (pre-tensioned) to a significant load immediately upon installation, prior to any soil deformation.

• Structure: An anchor consists of three distinct parts: an anchor head (transfers load to the structure), a free (unbonded) length, and a bonded (fixed) length.
• The Unbonded Length: The tendon (high-strength steel strands or bars) is encased in a smooth plastic sheath filled with grease within the active failure wedge of the soil. This prevents any load transfer to the unstable soil and allows the tendon to stretch elastically during tensioning.
• The Bonded Length: The deepest portion of the tendon is intentionally stripped of the sheath and heavily grouted (often using pressure grouting to enlarge the diameter) into the stable ground zone. This length provides the necessary frictional pullout resistance to hold the massive tension force.
• Mechanism: By applying a massive pre-load (often $80\%$ to $100\%$ of the design load) against the retaining structure (e.g., a secant pile wall) and locking it off at the anchor head, the anchor actively pulls the wall back into the soil, preventing any outward deflection. This strict displacement control is crucial for deep urban excavations adjacent to sensitive structures.

The level of protection required is dictated by the design life (temporary vs. permanent) and the aggressiveness of the ground environment.

• Class I Protection (Double Corrosion Protection): Required for all permanent ground anchors. The steel tendon is encased in a corrugated plastic tube (sheath), and the annulus between the tendon and the tube is completely filled with grout (bonded length) or corrosion-inhibiting grease (unbonded length). The entire encased assembly is then grouted into the drill hole. The steel is physically isolated from the ground water by two impermeable barriers (the plastic tube and the surrounding outer grout).
• Class II Protection (Single Corrosion Protection): Used for temporary anchors or permanent nails in non-aggressive soils. The steel element is protected only by the primary grout column encasing it in the drill hole (or occasionally an epoxy coating on the bar).

• Pullout Failure (Geotechnical): The frictional bond between the grout and the surrounding soil (or rock) is insufficient to hold the tension force. The entire nail or anchor pulls cleanly out of the ground. This governs the required bonded length ($L_b$) and is heavily dependent on soil type and grouting pressure. Evaluated using ultimate bond strength ($\tau_{ult}$).
• Tensile Rupture (Structural): The internal tension force exceeds the yield strength ($f_y$) of the steel bar or strands. The tendon snaps. This governs the required cross-sectional area of the steel ($A_s$).
• Facing Failure (Structural): In soil nailing, the soil pressure punches through the thin shotcrete facing, or the nail head pulls through the bearing plate (punching shear). This dictates the facing thickness and reinforcement requirements.
• Global Stability Failure (External): A massive, deep-seated failure surface develops entirely behind the reinforced soil mass (nails) or behind the bonded zone (anchors). The entire system, structure and all, slides as a rigid block. Checked using standard limit equilibrium slope stability analysis.

• Performance Tests: Conducted on the first few sacrificial or production anchors (typically 5% of the total). It involves cyclic loading and unloading to incrementally higher loads (up to $1.33$ or $1.5$ times the design load). It separates the total measured movement into elastic (recoverable tendon stretch) and residual (permanent grout/soil movement) components.
• Proof Tests: A simplified, single-cycle test performed on every single remaining production anchor. The anchor is loaded directly to the maximum test load, held for a short creep observation period, and then "locked off" at the required pre-load (often $80\%$ to $100\%$ of design load).
• Creep Tests: Extended performance tests where the maximum load is held for long durations (e.g., $100$ to $1000\text{ minutes}$) while monitoring displacement. Critical in cohesive soils to ensure the anchor won't slowly pull out over its service life under constant tension.

Pullout resistance is the maximum tensile force that can be transferred from the reinforcing element to the surrounding ground before failure occurs at the grout-soil interface.

• Interface Shear: The resistance is generated by the frictional and cohesive shear strength mobilized along the cylindrical surface of the grouted borehole.
• Effective Bond Length ($L_b$): Only the portion of the nail or anchor located entirely behind the theoretical active failure plane (the stable zone) contributes to pullout resistance.
• Ultimate Pullout Capacity ($Q_u$): Calculated based on the borehole diameter, the bond length, and the ultimate interface shear stress between the grout and the soil (which depends on soil type, overburden pressure, and grouting pressure).